These notes provide guidelines on different approaches to installing software on Linux. Due to the increasing popularity of Debian/APT derived distributions including Ubuntu the package management examples show use of apt-get and dpkg commands. Users of Red Hat derived distributions including Fedora, Mandriva and Novell/Suse will need to study use of the equivalent rpm commands and options.
While compatible binaries can sometimes be installed on a per user-account basis, most non trivial programs on Linux require administrator or root user access. This is considered to make Linux a more secure system. To run a series of root commands a root shell can be obtained using the sudo bash command. Otherwise (more securely if you make mistakes ?) precede each root command using sudo . On Debian, a root shell can be obtained using the su command. It is probably best not to run a graphics desktop as the root user, as the more software run by root, the greater the risk of security compromise.
Installing from source enables the software being installed to be studied. Also for many programs, pre-compiled binaries may not be available. If you use the Gentoo Linux distribution, this is designed so that all software is installed using source packages.
For some closed source proprietary software programs, installation from source is not an option - you have to either trust the binary provided or live without it.
If you want to choose any compile time options to control how the software is compiled, either to patch or to optimise it, you have to install from source. And you will need compilers to do this, for any compiled programming languages used. On Ubuntu use the following command to install the build-essential package, which contains the compilers likely to be needed:
aptitude install build-essentialIf you want to use the latest version provided by the developers of the program in question you will have to install it from source using the developer's instructions. Most of the time you are better off going through your Linux distribution's package repository, as this gives you the ability to manage all the software used with this distribution in a more coherent manner.
A "half-way house" giving you the advantages of source installation combined with some of the benefits of package management is to use the package management commands for your distribution to install from the source package from which the binary package was built.
Sometimes, for reasons stated above, you have to bypass the package management system. If this is the case it is a good idea to install within the /usr/local heirarchy. Binary executables are normally installed in /usr/local/bin . While GUI archiving tools can usually unpack the compressed software archive file, it is worth knowing the commands needed.
If a program arrives with a .tgz extension, this will be a compressed tar archive using GNU Zip. Create a folder for it within the user home directory and copy the .tgz file into this folder. As user (not root), change to this folder and unpack it as follows:
mkdir myprog # whatever the name of the program cp ~/downloads/myprog.tgz myprog # copies compressed tarball into myprog folder cd myprog # changes to myprog folder tar xzvf myprog.tgz # unpacks it
To uncompress it without unpacking it you could have used the command:
gzip -d myprog.tgz
which would have created the file myprog.tar
To untar the .tar file you could extract it with:tar xvf myprog.tar
The source code should now be unpacked within a folder within the folder you created. The reason you created the folder was in case the packer decided to create the archive locally to where they were working, without creating a folder. This would have caused you a problem of spattering files all over the folder you were working in. When you discovered how to solve jigsaw puzzles you learned to put all the pieces back into the box before emptying pieces from another puzzle onto the floor for a similar reason.
If you have another folder, change down into it and look for readable text files containing further instructions, e.g. README.TXT or INSTALL.TXT . If nothing useful can be displayed, you may have to read source code files using a file browser, e.g. program.c or install.sh or Makefile .
If the program has a Makefile it is possible that this file is generated using a ./configure script or command, in which event it is best not to edit the Makefile. In some cases, the Makefile can be edited to decide where to install parts of the program and choose other build/installation time options.
make is the name of a program used to control how a program comprising many source files is compiled, built, installed and removed. The Makefile script is created manually or automatically to configure and control this process. It is a mixture of shell script commands and directives particular to make, e.g. to specify dependencies between an executable and compiled object files, or between source files and object files.
The full manpage is obtained using:
man apt-get
Below is most of this, with less frequently used options and facilities cut to improve clarity.
APT-GET(8) APT-GET(8)
NAME
apt-get - APT package handling utility -- command-line interface
SYNOPSIS
apt-get [-hvs] [-o=config string] [-c=file] {[update] | [upgrade] |
[dselect-upgrade] | [install pkg...] | [remove pkg...] |
[purge pkg...] | [source pkg...] | [build-dep pkg...] | [check]
| [clean] | [autoclean] | [autoremove]}
DESCRIPTION
apt-get is the command-line tool for handling packages, and may be
considered the user's "back-end" to other tools using the APT library.
Several "front-end" interfaces exist, such as dselect(8), aptitude,
synaptic, gnome-apt and wajig.
Unless the -h, or --help option is given, one of the commands below
must be present.
update
update is used to resynchronize the package index files from their
sources. The indexes of available packages are fetched from the
location(s) specified in /etc/apt/sources.list. For example, when
using a Debian archive, this command retrieves and scans the
Packages.gz files, so that information about new and updated
packages is available. An update should always be performed before
an upgrade or dist-upgrade. Please be aware that the overall
progress meter will be incorrect as the size of the package files
cannot be known in advance.
upgrade
upgrade is used to install the newest versions of all packages
currently installed on the system from the sources enumerated in
/etc/apt/sources.list. Packages currently installed with new
versions available are retrieved and upgraded; under no
circumstances are currently installed packages removed, or packages
not already installed retrieved and installed. New versions of
currently installed packages that cannot be upgraded without
changing the install status of another package will be left at
their current version. An update must be performed first so that
apt-get knows that new versions of packages are available.
dselect-upgrade
dselect-upgrade is used in conjunction with the traditional Debian
packaging front-end, dselect(8). dselect-upgrade follows the
changes made by dselect(8) to the Status field of available
packages, and performs the actions necessary to realize that state
(for instance, the removal of old and the installation of new
packages).
dist-upgrade
dist-upgrade in addition to performing the function of upgrade,
also intelligently handles changing dependencies with new versions
of packages; apt-get has a "smart" conflict resolution system, and
it will attempt to upgrade the most important packages at the
expense of less important ones if necessary. The
/etc/apt/sources.list file contains a list of locations from which
to retrieve desired package files. See also apt_preferences(5) for
a mechanism for overriding the general settings for individual
packages.
install
install is followed by one or more packages desired for
installation. Each package is a package name, not a fully qualified
filename (for instance, in a Debian GNU/Linux system, libc6 would
be the argument provided, not libc6_1.9.6-2.deb) All packages
required by the package(s) specified for installation will also be
retrieved and installed. The /etc/apt/sources.list file is used to
locate the desired packages. If a hyphen is appended to the package
name (with no intervening space), the identified package will be
removed if it is installed. Similarly a plus sign can be used to
designate a package to install. These latter features may be used
to override decisions made by apt-get's conflict resolution system.
A specific version of a package can be selected for installation by
following the package name with an equals and the version of the
package to select. This will cause that version to be located and
selected for install. Alternatively a specific distribution can be
selected by following the package name with a slash and the version
of the distribution or the Archive name (stable, testing,
unstable).
Both of the version selection mechanisms can downgrade packages and
must be used with care.
Finally, the apt_preferences(5) mechanism allows you to create an
alternative installation policy for individual packages.
remove
remove is identical to install except that packages are removed
instead of installed.
purge
purge is identical to remove except that packages are removed and
purged. (note by RK: purging means removal of configuration files)
source
source causes apt-get to fetch source packages. APT will examine
the available packages to decide which source package to fetch. It
will then find and download into the current directory the newest
available version of that source package. Source packages are
tracked separately from binary packages via deb-src type lines in
the sources.list(5) file. This probably will mean that you will not
get the same source as the package you have installed or as you
could install. If the --compile options is specified then the
package will be compiled to a binary .deb using dpkg-buildpackage,
if --download-only is specified then the source package will not be
unpacked.
Note that source packages are not tracked like binary packages,
they exist only in the current directory and are similar to
downloading source tar balls.
build-dep
build-dep causes apt-get to install/remove packages in an attempt
to satisfy the build dependencies for a source package.
check
check is a diagnostic tool; it updates the package cache and checks
for broken dependencies.
clean
clean clears out the local repository of retrieved package files.
It removes everything but the lock file from
/var/cache/apt/archives/ and /var/cache/apt/archives/partial/. When
APT is used as a dselect(8) method, clean is run automatically.
Those who do not use dselect will likely want to run apt-get clean
from time to time to free up disk space.
autoclean
Like clean, autoclean clears out the local repository of retrieved
package files. The difference is that it only removes package files
that can no longer be downloaded, and are largely useless. This
allows a cache to be maintained over a long period without it
growing out of control.
autoremove
autoremove is used to remove packages that were automatically
installed to satisfy dependencies for some package and that are no
more needed.
OPTIONS
All command line options may be set using the configuration file, the
descriptions indicate the configuration option to set. For boolean
options you can override the config file by using something like
-f-,--no-f, -f=no or several other variations.
-d, --download-only
Download only; package files are only retrieved, not unpacked or
installed. Configuration Item: APT::Get::Download-Only.
-f, --fix-broken
Fix; attempt to correct a system with broken dependencies in place.
This option, when used with install/remove, can omit any packages
to permit APT to deduce a likely solution. Any Package that are
specified must completely correct the problem. The option is
sometimes necessary when running APT for the first time; APT itself
does not allow broken package dependencies to exist on a system. It
is possible that a systemÂŽs dependency structure can be so corrupt
as to require manual intervention (which usually means using
dselect(8) or dpkg --remove to eliminate some of the offending
packages). Use of this option together with -m may produce an error
in some situations. Configuration Item: APT::Get::Fix-Broken.
-m, --ignore-missing, --fix-missing
Ignore missing packages; If packages cannot be retrieved or fail
the integrity check after retrieval (corrupted package files), hold
back those packages and handle the result. Use of this option
together with -f may produce an error in some situations. If a
package is selected for installation (particularly if it is
mentioned on the command line) and it could not be downloaded then
it will be silently held back. Configuration Item:
APT::Get::Fix-Missing.
--no-download
Disables downloading of packages. This is best used with
--ignore-missing to force APT to use only the .debs it has already
downloaded. Configuration Item: APT::Get::Download.
-s, --simulate, --just-print, --dry-run, --recon, --no-act
No action; perform a simulation of events that would occur but do
not actually change the system. Configuration Item:
APT::Get::Simulate.
Simulate prints out a series of lines each one representing a dpkg
operation, Configure (Conf), Remove (Remv), Unpack (Inst). Square
brackets indicate broken packages with and empty set of square
brackets meaning breaks that are of no consequence (rare).
-y, --yes, --assume-yes
Automatic yes to prompts; assume "yes" as answer to all prompts and
run non-interactively. If an undesirable situation, such as
changing a held package, trying to install a unauthenticated
package or removing an essential package occurs then apt-get will
abort. Configuration Item: APT::Get::Assume-Yes.
-u, --show-upgraded
Show upgraded packages; Print out a list of all packages that are
to be upgraded. Configuration Item: APT::Get::Show-Upgraded.
-V, --verbose-versions
Show full versions for upgraded and installed packages.
Configuration Item: APT::Get::Show-Versions.
-b, --compile, --build
Compile source packages after downloading them. Configuration Item:
APT::Get::Compile.
--ignore-hold
Ignore package Holds; This causes apt-get to ignore a hold placed
on a package. This may be useful in conjunction with dist-upgrade
to override a large number of undesired holds. Configuration Item:
APT::Ignore-Hold.
--no-upgrade
Do not upgrade packages; When used in conjunction with install,
no-upgrade will prevent packages on the command line from being
upgraded if they are already installed. Configuration Item:
APT::Get::Upgrade.
--force-yes
Force yes; This is a dangerous option that will cause apt to
continue without prompting if it is doing something potentially
harmful. It should not be used except in very special situations.
Using force-yes can potentially destroy your system! Configuration
Item: APT::Get::force-yes.
--print-uris
Instead of fetching the files to install their URIs are printed.
Each URI will have the path, the destination file name, the size
and the expected md5 hash. Note that the file name to write to will
not always match the file name on the remote site! This also works
with the source and update commands. When used with the update
command the MD5 and size are not included, and it is up to the user
to decompress any compressed files. Configuration Item:
APT::Get::Print-URIs.
--purge
Use purge instead of remove for anything that would be removed. An
asterisk ("*") will be displayed next to packages which are
scheduled to be purged. Configuration Item: APT::Get::Purge.
--reinstall
Re-Install packages that are already installed and at the newest
version. Configuration Item: APT::Get::ReInstall.
--list-cleanup
This option defaults to on, use --no-list-cleanup to turn it off.
When on apt-get will automatically manage the contents of
/var/lib/apt/lists to ensure that obsolete files are erased. The
only reason to turn it off is if you frequently change your source
list. Configuration Item: APT::Get::List-Cleanup.
-t, --target-release, --default-release
This option controls the default input to the policy engine, it
creates a default pin at priority 990 using the specified release
string. The preferences file may further override this setting. In
short, this option lets you have simple control over which
distribution packages will be retrieved from. Some common examples
might be -t ÂÂŽ2.1*ÂÂŽ or -t unstable. Configuration Item:
APT::Default-Release; see also the apt_preferences(5) manual page.
--only-source
Only has meaning for the source and build-dep commands. Indicates
that the given source names are not to be mapped through the binary
table. This means that if this option is specified, these commands
will only accept source package names as arguments, rather than
accepting binary package names and looking up the corresponding
source package. Configuration Item: APT::Get::Only-Source.
--diff-only, --dsc-only, --tar-only
Download only the diff, dsc, or tar file of a source archive.
Configuration Item: APT::Get::Diff-Only, APT::Get::Dsc-Only, and
APT::Get::Tar-Only.
--arch-only
Only process architecture-dependent build-dependencies.
Configuration Item: APT::Get::Arch-Only.
--allow-unauthenticated
Ignore if packages can't be authenticated and don't prompt about
it. This is usefull for tools like pbuilder. Configuration Item:
APT::Get::AllowUnauthenticated.
-h, --help
Show a short usage summary.
-v, --version
Show the program version.
-c, --config-file
Configuration File; Specify a configuration file to use. The
program will read the default configuration file and then this
configuration file. See apt.conf(5) for syntax information.
-o, --option
Set a Configuration Option; This will set an arbitary configuration
option. The syntax is -o Foo::Bar=bar.
FILES
/etc/apt/sources.list
Locations to fetch packages from. Configuration Item:
Dir::Etc::SourceList.
/etc/apt/apt.conf
APT configuration file. Configuration Item: Dir::Etc::Main.
/etc/apt/apt.conf.d/
APT configuration file fragments Configuration Item:
Dir::Etc::Parts.
/etc/apt/preferences
Version preferences file. This is where you would specify
"pinning", i.e. a preference to get certain packages from a
separate source or from a different version of a distribution.
Configuration Item: Dir::Etc::Preferences.
/var/cache/apt/archives/
Storage area for retrieved package files. Configuration Item:
Dir::Cache::Archives.
/var/cache/apt/archives/partial/
Storage area for package files in transit. Configuration Item:
Dir::Cache::Archives (implicit partial).
/var/lib/apt/lists/
Storage area for state information for each package resource
specified in sources.list(5) Configuration Item: Dir::State::Lists.
/var/lib/apt/lists/partial/
Storage area for state information in transit. Configuration Item:
Dir::State::Lists (implicit partial).
SEE ALSO
apt-cache(8), apt-cdrom(8), dpkg(8), dselect(8), sources.list(5),
apt.conf(5), apt-config(8), apt-secure(8), The APT User's guide in
/usr/share/doc/apt-doc/, apt_preferences(5), the APT Howto.
DIAGNOSTICS
apt-get returns zero on normal operation, decimal 100 on error.
BUGS
APT bug page[1]. If you wish to report a bug in APT, please see
/usr/share/doc/debian/bug-reporting.txt or the reportbug(1) command.
AUTHORS
Jason Gunthorpe
Author.
APT team
Author.
NOTES
1. APT bug page
http://bugs.debian.org/src:apt
Linux 29 February 2004 APT-GET(8)
dpkg -l
||/ Name Version
Description
+++-==========================================-=================================
========-============================================
ii acl 2.2.45-1
Access control list utilities
ii acpi 0.09-3ubuntu1
displays information on ACPI devices
ii acpi-support 0.109-0hardy2
a collection of useful events for acpi
ii acpid 1.0.4-5ubuntu9.3
Utilities for using ACPI power management
ii adduser 3.105ubuntu1
add and remove users and groups
ii adobe-flashplugin 10.0.22.87-1
Adobe Flash Player plugin version 10
ii alacarte 0.11.5-0ubuntu1.1
easy GNOME menu editing tool
Details of 1000's of other packages cut. Pipe output through grep, e.g.
dpkg -l | grep -i soundfor more specific packages.
Use dpkg-reconfigure <package-name> e.g:
dpkg-reconfigure msmtp
If you boot off the Jaunty CD this will give you the option to upgrade. Alternatively you can do the job over the net. The easiest way is to use the GUI tools. Alternatively you'll need to edit /etc/apt/sources.list and then use the apt-get tool.
The first command edits all instances of intrepid to jaunty in sources.list:
sed -e 's/\sintrepid/ jaunty/g' -i /etc/apt/sources.list
The second (pair of commands) updates the package index and performs a dist-upgrade.
apt-get update && sudo apt-get dist-upgrade
Use the command:
dpkg -L <package-name>
Fortunately this isn't a common requirement. When this happened to me I had to work out the location of the package removal shell script, try to figure out what it should be doing, edit it until it didn't crash and then fix anything it couldn't do manually.
If you run into anything quite as nasty as this it's a good idea to report the bug that caused it to reduce the risk of others being caught by it. You will probably still have to sort out the mess on your own system yourself, unless you have paid for support.